One claimed effect of MDMA use is lowered brain serotonin levels. One
study (Peroutka) found no evidence for this, but at least two others (Ricaurte)
have found significantly reduced serotonin metabolite levels, the most recent
study showing a 30% average difference between the control group of non-MDMA
users and the experimental group consisting of people who had used MDMA about
75 times each, on average.
What does this mean for users? Anecdotal evidence from years of legal and
illegal use suggests that this is not of much concern for most people. Some
folks, however, report periods of depression after using MDMA, on rare occasion
severe depression. Considering that a primary action of many antidepressant
drugs (MAOIs, SSRIs) is to increase brain serotonin levels, a connection
between MDMA use and subsequent depression is not unbelievable. Psychological
factors - sadness at returning to an ordinary state of consciousness after
ecstasy - may also account for feeling down for a while. In any event, most
users report the opposite: feelings of well-being or gentle euphoria in the
days following an MDMA session. To get a better understanding of why the
serotonin system may be critical to normalcy for some individuals and less so
for others, see Listening to Prozac by Peter D. Kramer (Viking 1993). The
entire book is worthwhile, but note pages 134-136 especially.
There is solid experimental evidence that MDMA, administered in large
doses and/or repeatedly, causes partial loss of serotonergic neurons in
laboratory animals. Uncertain is whether this loss is permanent, reversible,
or important. One study found in the rat nearly 100% recovery within a year.
In another study (Ricaurte), non-human primates were dosed with MDMA and their
brains were examined for morphological changes. Ricaurte found that there was
no effect after 2.5 mg/kg oral doses given every two weeks, for a total of
eight doses. But after a single oral dose of 5 mg/kg, he observed a 20%
reduction in serotonergic neurons, only in the thalamus & hypothalamus. There
appeared to be some regrowth over time, not necessarily complete, and also some
"collateral sprouting" - growth of other types of neurons in the reduced
serotonin areas.
Note that in all of the animal studies, even when there are quite large
serotonin system reductions (up to 90% in high MDMA dose rat studies), no
behavioral deficits are observed.
It is also uncertain how these studies would extrapolate to humans - the human
brain may well be more or less sensitive, or sensitive in different areas,
compared with other animals. In any case, what is known is that there are no
reported cases that link behavior changes in humans with MDMA-induced serotonin
system changes or neuronal loss. And, the long-term human behavior changes
that are noted (in studies and from anecdotal case reports) are generally
regarded as positive - lowered impulsiveness and hostility, improved
social/interpersonal functioning, changes in religious/spiritual orientation or
practice, etc.
One of the reasons so little is known about the lasting effects of MDMA on the
human brain is that no subjects (to date) have recorded their drug use history,
then volunteered their brains for post-mortem study. If you would like to
consider doing this, you can get donor information at 1-800-UM-BRAIN.
Studies with live human subjects are also underway - both volunteers and
donations are needed. One good source of current info is the Multidisciplinary
Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) - see "Organizations" at the end of
the FAQ.
Immune System
-------------
Some users of MDMA report an apparent decrease in resistance to disease,
especially with frequent MDMA use. It is unknown how much of this may be due
to the pharmacological "body load" of MDMA, to staying up all night and
dancing, to increased physical contact with people with colds, to suppressed
appetite and poor nutrition, etc.
Preventive Measures
-------------------
A fundamental precaution is to stay well hydrated. Drink water frequently
during the MDMA session, and moreso if you're physically active. Under the
influence, time can pass surprisingly quickly. It is useful if trip guides or
trip buddies remind each other to drink water often.
For those who are concerned about the possibility of serotonin level or
serotonin system changes in humans with therapeutic doses of MDMA, some
researchers reckon changes can be lessened or prevented by taking antioxidants. In an article titled "Phenethylamines, Free Radicals, and Antioxidants" (MAPS
Newsletter, Volume IV Number 1), author Brian Leibovitz suggests in Table 1
taking as a preventive measure the following: 5 mg B-Carotene; 2 grams
